OBJECTIVE: To investigate the accuracy of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in classifying sonographically indeterminate ovarian and adnexal masses.
MATERIALS AND METHODS: This was a retrospective cross-sectional study of the unenhanced pelvic MRI scans of 243 patients with a collective total of 336 adnexal and ovarian masses.
RESULTS: Unenhanced MRI showed a sensitivity of 97.7%, a specificity of 86.4%, and an accuracy of 93.8%. The area under the ROC curve was 0.944 (95% CI: 0.913–0.974).
CONCLUSION: Our results show that an unenhanced MRI protocol can be used to classify adnexal masses, especially in clinical settings in which the intravenous administration of gadolinium-based contrast is not safe and should be avoided.

Keywords: Ovarian neoplasms; Adnexal diseases; Magnetic resonance imaging; Contrast media; Gadolinium DTPA; Ultrasonography.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the frequency of unrecognized myocardial infarction and identify additional ischemic conditions, as well as to evaluate the efficacy of cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMRI) in risk groups, comparing the imaging findings with electrocardiographic (ECG) and laboratory data in patients with stage 5 chronic kidney disease, also known as end-stage renal disease.
MATERIALS AND METHODS: This was a prospective single-center study involving 20 patients who were referred to our radiology department to undergo CMRI between June 2010 and December 2011. Resting left ventricular functions and (early and late) myocardial contrast enhancement were assessed in all patients. Laboratory tests and ECG were conducted on all individuals. The mean duration of clinical follow-up was 18 ± 4 months.
RESULTS: Pathological results were seen in six (30%) of the patients in our study sample. Scar tissue was identified as a high-risk factor in three patients (15%), and myocardial hibernation was shown to pose a moderate risk in three patients (15%). In the remaining 14 cases, no pathology was identified, and the risk was therefore categorized as low. A statistically significant disparity in mortality rates was observed between the high- and low-risk groups (p < 0.05). There were no statistically significant differences between the two groups in terms of the ECG and cardiac biomarkers.
CONCLUSION: Our findings indicate that CMRI is effective in accurately categorizing risk groups and detecting ischemic conditions, even when such events are not evident on ECG or laboratory tests.

Keywords: Magnetic resonance imaging/methods; Kidney failure, chronic; Contrast media/metabolism; Myocardial infarction/diagnosis.

OBJECTIVE: To use shear wave elastography (SWE) in the evaluation of salivary glands in patients with ankylosing spondylitis (AS) who present with sicca symptoms.
MATERIALS AND METHODS: This was a prospective controlled study of patients diagnosed with AS and exhibiting sicca symptoms (study group) and of healthy volunteers (control group). The levels of antinuclear, anti-Ro, and anti-La antibodies were determined in blood samples. In both groups, parotid and submandibular glands were evaluated by ultrasound and tissue stiffness was determined by SWE. Intraclass correlation coefficients were used in order to assess reliability. The differences between the two groups were assessed by statistical methods, and a ROC curve analysis was performed to determine the predictive values.
RESULTS: A total of 66 patients with AS and 71 healthy volunteers were included in the study. There were no significant differences between the groups in terms of age or sex (p > 0.05). The intra- and inter-rater reliability of SWE were good for the parotid gland (0.81–0.85 and 0.80, respectively) and for the submandibular gland (0.85–0.88 and 0.80, respectively). Statistically significant differences were found. Tissue stiffness in the parotid and submandibular glands, as determined by SWE, was significantly greater in the study group than in the control group (p < 0.05).
CONCLUSION: Although there was no histopathological correlation in the parotid and submandibular salivary glands of patients with AS and sicca symptoms compared with the healthy volunteers, quantitative measurements showed greater tissue stiffness in the former group. In patients with AS, SWE guides salivary gland biopsy, which is the gold standard for diagnosing Sjögren’s syndrome.

Keywords: Spondylitis, ankylosing/diagnostic imaging; Inflammation; Salivary glands/physiopathology; Ultrasonography/methods; Elasticity imaging techniques/methods.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the accuracy of diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) for the diagnosis of cervical lymph node metastasis from oral cancer.
MATERIALS AND METHODS: This was a cross-sectional study conducted in the Radiology Department of the Mayo Hospital, in the city of Lahore, Pakistan. We included 150 patients diagnosed with oral cancer. Ages ranged from 18 to 60 years of age. During the study period, all of the patients included underwent magnetic resonance imaging, including a DWI sequence, in a 1.5-T scanner with a phased-array head and neck coil. Patients with contraindications to magnetic resonance (aneurysm, a pacemaker, clips, plates, a prosthetic valve, or claustrophobia) were excluded. In the DWI sequence, the area scanned included the lymph nodes from suprasternal notch to the base of the skull. Histopathology of the lymph nodes was employed as the gold standard.
RESULTS: The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, negative predictive value, and accuracy of DWI for the diagnosis of oral cancer metastasis to cervical lymph nodes, with histopathology as the gold standard, was 90.57%, 91.75%, 94.68%, 90.57%, and 91.33%, respectively.
CONCLUSION: Our findings indicate that DWI is fairly accurate for detecting metastases in the cervical lymph nodes of patients with oral cancer.

Keywords: Lymph nodes/pathology; Mouth neoplasms; Head and neck neoplasms; Lymphatic metastasis; Diffusion magnetic resonance imaging; Sensitivity and specificity.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence of incidentally detected pancreatic cystic lesions (PCLs) in adult patients undergoing magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
MATERIALS AND METHODS: We included radiological records of consecutive adult patients who underwent MRI at our institution during a one-year period (January to December of 2023). We collected clinical and radiological data, including the presence or absence of cysts in the liver and kidneys.
RESULTS: A total of 1,211 MRI records were included. We identified PCLs in 138 patients, corresponding to a prevalence of 11.4%. That prevalence was 9.51% in men and 12.52% in women (p = 0.112). The patients with incidental PCLs (64.57 ± 13.15) were significantly older than were those without (mean age, 64.57 ± 13.15 years vs. 51.01 ± 15.27 years; p < 0.001). Of the 138 patients with PCLs, 53 (38.41%) had at least one liver cyst and 83 (60.14%) had at least one kidney cyst. In 69 patients (50.0%), the radiological diagnosis of the incidental cysts was intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm. In the univariate analysis, the presence of PCLs was associated with age, liver cysts, and kidney cysts, although it was associated with only age and kidney cysts in the multivariate analysis.
CONCLUSION: In our study sample, the prevalence of incidentally detected PCLs was 11.4%. That prevalence increased significantly with age but did not differ by sex.

Keywords: Incidental findings; Pancreatic cyst/diagnostic imaging; Magnetic resonance imaging; Kidney diseases, cystic; Liver diseases; Cysts/diagnostic imaging.

Hepatic cysts are quite common in the daily practice of radiologists and are generally described as simple cysts or as cystic lesions sparsely distributed throughout the parenchyma, often without the discrimination they merit. Simple cysts have, by definition, thin walls, one or two thin septa, and homogeneous fluid content. Such cysts include congenital epithelial cysts, biliary hamartomas, and peribiliary cysts, as well as those representing Caroli’s disease or polycystic liver disease. Complex cysts have variable walls, septa, and contents. They also have various etiologies. A detailed assessment of the clinical history and imaging characteristics can assist in making the diagnosis and choosing a course of clinical management. In this review, hepatic cysts are divided, for educational purposes, into five categories: congenital, traumatic, neoplastic, inflammatory, and miscellaneous.

Keywords: Liver; Cystadenoma, mucinous; Echinococcosis, hepatic; Caroli disease; Liver abscess.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate and identify the main abdominal ultrasound findings in patients with biliary atresia (BA).
MATERIALS AND METHODS: This was a retrospective study of the ultrasound images of 44 patients with neonatal cholestasis. We excluded 18 patients in whom a final diagnosis of BA was not confirmed or who were lost to clinical follow-up. The main ultrasound findings evaluated were gallbladder length and morphology; triangular cord thickness; hepatic artery enlargement; hepatic subcapsular flow; cysts in the porta hepatis; presence of a distinct triangular cord with linear, tubular, or round hypoechoic portions; and polysplenia syndrome.
RESULTS: Abnormal gallbladder morphology and triangular cord thickening were the main ultrasound findings in the patients with BA. Gallbladder abnormalities were present in all patients. Hepatic artery enlargement was the third most common finding, present in 19 (73%) patients. Six patients (23%) had subcapsular arterial flow and four (15%) had cysts in the porta hepatis. Hypoechoic or cystic portions of the triangular cord were present in three patients (11%), and we found that BA was accompanied by polysplenia syndrome in three patients (11%).
CONCLUSION: Ultrasound is the examination of greatest diagnostic relevance in the investigation of cholestasis in newborns and infants; it enables the establishment of BA suspicion and the indication for laparotomy with intraoperative cholangiography.

Keywords: Diagnosis; Abdomen/physiopathology; Gallbladder/physiopathology; Ultrasonography/methods; Biliary atresia/diagnostic imaging; Pediatrics

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the feasibility of performing magnetic resonance fingerprinting (MRF) of the bladder and quantify the T1 and T2 relaxation times of the bladder wall in healthy female volunteers, before and after voiding.
MATERIALS AND METHODS: Volunteers without lower urinary tract symptoms underwent pelvic MRF. Five axial MRF slices of the bladder were obtained before and after voiding. Regions of interest were annotated on MRF T1 maps: one on the anterior bladder wall, and one on a lateral wall. Annotations made on T1 maps were subsequently copied to coregistered T2 maps. Student’s t-tests for paired samples were employed to compare the T1 and T2 values obtained before voiding with those obtained after voiding.
RESULTS: Eight volunteers were included. The mean pre- and post-void T1 relaxation times were 1,575 ± 93 ms and 1,476 ± 138 ms, respectively. The mean pre- and post-void T2 relaxation times were 55 ± 21 ms and 53 ± 8 ms, respectively. The mean T1 relaxation times were 6% lower after voiding than before (p = 0.035).
CONCLUSION: The use of MRF to quantify T1 and T2 relaxation times in the bladder appears to be feasible. Our results can serve as a reference for studies investigating T1 and T2 relaxation times in patients with malignant or nonmalignant bladder disorders.

Keywords: Healthy volunteers; Magnetic resonance imaging; Urinary bladder.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the false-negative rate in the diagnosis of superior labrum anterior to posterior (SLAP) lesions on unenhanced 1.5-T magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
MATERIALS AND METHODS: This was a retrospective analysis of the medical records of 24 patients who regularly engaged in physical activity and underwent surgery for reconstruction of the rotator cuff or for glenohumeral instability, comparing the result of the MRI examination with the intraoperative findings.
RESULTS: Eighteen patients (75%) were male and six (25%) were female. False-negative results for SLAP lesions were observed in 83% of the MRI examinations.
CONCLUSION: For SLAP-type lesions, MRI has low diagnostic sensitivity. Arthroscopy appears to be the most efficient tool for the diagnosis of such lesions.

Keywords: Shoulder injuries/diagnosis; Magnetic resonance imaging; Data accuracy.

OBJECTIVE: To develop a deep learning system to classify non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) by histologic subtype—adenocarcinoma or squamous cell carcinoma (SCC)—from computed tomography (CT) images in which the tumor regions were segmented, comparing our results with those of similar studies conducted in other countries and evaluating the accuracy of automated classification by using data from the Instituto Nacional de Câncer, Brazil.
MATERIALS AND METHODS: To develop the classification system, we employed a 2D U-Net neural network for semantic segmentation, with data augmentation and preprocessing steps. It was pretrained on 28,506 CT images from The Cancer Image Archive, a private database, and validated on 2,015 of those images. To develop the classification algorithm, we used a VGG16-based network, modified for better performance, with 3,080 images of adenocarcinoma and SCC from the Instituto Nacional de Câncer database.
RESULTS: The algorithm achieved an accuracy of 84.5% for detecting adenocarcinoma and 89.6% for detecting SCC, with sensitivities of 91.7% and 90.4%, respectively, which are considered satisfactory when compared with the values obtained in similar studies.
CONCLUSION: The system developed appears to provide accurate automated detection, as well as tumor segmentation and classification of NSCLC subtypes of a local population using deep learning networks trained using public image data sets. This method could assist oncological radiologists by improving the efficiency of preliminary diagnoses

Keywords: Carcinoma, non-small-cell lung; Image processing, computer-assisted/methods; Segmentation; Semantics; Carcinoma/classification; Deep learning.

OBJECTIVE: To present the results of a series of outpatient renal biopsies performed with a tangential approach, as well as to conduct an analysis focusing on patient safety and the frequency with which sufficient material was obtained.
MATERIALS AND METHODS: This retrospective observational study examined the pathology results and evolution of 244 patients referred for ultrasound-guided renal biopsy at a single center. In each biopsy, the needle was advanced in the cortex just below the renal capsule. The pathologist examined the fragments, counting the viable glomeruli obtained; additional punctures were performed if necessary, as long as Doppler ultrasound showed no bleeding. The patients remained at rest at the clinic, being discharged after a follow-up ultrasound evaluation and contacted one week later to investigate late adverse events.
RESULTS: Ten patients were excluded from the analysis, leaving a sample of 234 patients. The material obtained for diagnosis was considered sufficient in 95.73% of the procedures, partially adequate in 3.42%, and not very representative in 0.85%. Two patients (0.85%) had bleeding greater than 50 cm³ and were referred to the hospital emergency department. Both of those patients had a favorable evolution: one required only a period at rest, and the other required a blood transfusion, being discharged 48 h after the procedure.
CONCLUSION: The tangential approach to renal biopsy, with its high rates of safety and efficacy, representing a reliable diagnostic tool for renal and systemic diseases, should be the method of choice for obtaining adequate pathological specimens.

Keywords: Image-guided biopsy; Kidney diseases; Ambulatory care; Ultrasonography, interventional.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate computed tomography (CT) features of pneumonia that does not respond to empirical therapy in patients with hematologic diseases.
MATERIALS AND METHODS: This was a retrospective analysis of all patients with hematologic disease who were diagnosed with pneumonia between 2017 and 2023, did not respond to empirical therapy for the infection, and underwent bronchoalveolar lavage and CT within a week of each other. The distribution and CT pattern of pulmonary abnormalities were assessed, as was the presence of lymphadenopathy, pleural effusion, and pericardial effusion.
RESULTS: Forty-nine patients (30 males; mean age, 61 years) were included. We identified Gram-negative bacteria in 45 patients, Gram-positive bacteria in 13, and fungi in three. Pulmonary abnormalities were bilateral in 73% of the patients in the sample, and there was no difference in prevalence between the upper and lower lung fields in 53%. Common alterations were consolidation, in 73% of the patients, bronchial wall thickening, in 71%, bronchiectasis, in 55%, and nodules, in 53%; extrapulmonary findings were less common, being identified in ≤ 27%. Pulmonary findings were typically bilateral and without a predominance between the upper and lower lung fields (p < 0.05). Common associations were between consolidation and bronchiectasis, between nodules and bronchial wall thickening, and between bronchiectasis and bronchial wall thickening (p < 0.05 for all).
CONCLUSION: The CT manifestations of pneumonia in patients with hematologic diseases not responding to empirical therapy can resemble those of lobular pneumonia with airway inflammation. For that reason, as well as because multiple pathogens can be present in the same patient, examination of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid can be necessary.

Keywords: Pneumonia; Drug resistance; Hematologic neoplasms; Tomography, X-ray computed; Bronchoalveolar lavage.

Advances in cardiac magnetic resonance have promoted tissue characterization with high spatial and contrast resolution, and late gadolinium enhancement (LGE) sequences have improved the detection of myocardial fibrosis. The distribution pattern of LGE facilitates differentiation between ischemic and nonischemic etiologies and aids in refining diagnoses within nonischemic cardiomyopathies, suggesting specific etiological factors. A distinctive nonischemic LGE pattern that has recently gained prominence is the ring-like pattern, defined as a subepicardial or mid-wall circumferential or semi-circumferential enhancement, which involves at least three contiguous segments within the same short-axis slice. Initially identified as a diagnostic marker for desmoplakin and filamin C-related cardiomyopathies, the pattern has been reported in nongenetic conditions; nevertheless, it remains an uncommon finding in these diseases. In this article, we aim to present the differential diagnoses of ring-like LGE and its mimics. The combination of epidemiological, clinical, electrocardiographic, and additional features enables a focused refinement of the differential diagnosis associated with ring-like LGE.

Keywords: Cardiomyopathies; Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy; Magnetic resonance imaging; Gadolinium.

The aim of this article is to provide a comprehensive guide to image quality assessment in diagnostic radiology, emphasizing practical methodologies for radiologists. The goal is to improve diagnostic accuracy and patient care on the basis of the understanding and application of quantitative and qualitative metrics in clinical practice and research. We conducted a review of the literature in the PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Embase databases. The search terms included “image quality in radiology”, “quantitative and qualitative assessment”, “modulation transfer function”, “signal-to-noise ratio”, “contrast-to-noise ratio”, “radiation dose optimization”, and “artificial intelligence in image quality assessment”. The review identified the main methodologies for image quality assessment. We analyzed these metrics for their applicability in clinical settings, highlighting their benefits and limitations. In addition, we discuss qualitative methods such as visual assessment, the assessment of contrast/density, and peer review. This guide fills a gap in the literature by providing accessible, practical knowledge for general radiologists. Ongoing research, education, and technological development are essential to advance the field and ensure high standards in radiology practice.

Keywords: Quality control; Image processing, computer-assisted; Radiology; Diagnostic imaging; Practice guideline.

Müllerian anomalies represent a spectrum of congenital malformations of the female reproductive tract. Over the decades, various classifications have been developed to categorize these anomalies. Based on a classification proposed by Kaufmann and Jarcho in 1946, the classification devised by the American Fertility Society in 1988 was considered simple and practical; although it faced criticism for its subjectivity and limitations in classifying complex anomalies, it was widely adopted. In 2013, the European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology and the European Society for Gynaecological Endoscopy introduced a more detailed classification, which, albeit more complex and with a risk of overdiagnosis, also included cervical and vaginal anomalies. In 2021, the American Society for Reproductive Medicine updated the classification with the aim of simplifying and improving diagnostic accuracy, expanding the categories, and defining more objective criteria. This new classification seeks to facilitate communication among professionals and enhance clinical management, emphasizing the importance of continuous updates to improve reproductive outcomes and the quality of life for patients affected by these anomalies. This article aims to discuss the strengths and limitations of each of these classifications, offering a critical analysis of their impact on the diagnosis and treatment of müllerian anomalies. It also seeks to highlight aspects that may be refined in future revisions to achieve greater diagnostic precision and clinical applicability.

Keywords: Congenital abnormalities; Mullerian ducts; Classification; Diagnosis; Radiology; Diagnostic imaging.

This study aimed to systematically review the highest-quality evidence regarding the cutoff value in kPa for the diagnostic accuracy of ultrasound-based liver elastography in comparison with reference standards, including magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography, and liver biopsy. In addition, we assessed the presence of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and its associated implications in clinical and diagnostic contexts. We conducted a search using Medical Subject Headings across PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library, Web of Science, Scopus, and Lilacs for articles published up to June 6, 2024. Of 1,131 studies identified, 33 were eligible and 8 met the quality criteria, as evaluated with the “RTI Item Bank” and “QUADAS-2” tools, following the PICO strategy. The mean elasticity of the liver parenchyma among patients with confirmed HCC was 18.77 kPa (95% CI: 16.28–21.27), making ultrasound liver elastography useful as a predictor of the diagnosis by gold-standard methods such as MRI. Ultrasound elastography is a low-cost, accessible, and noninvasive diagnostic tool capable of estimating liver elasticity in patients with HCC. However, due to the heterogeneity of the articles included in this review, further prospective studies are needed in order to confirm and standardize a cutoff stiffness value for early HCC screening, which could improve patient outcomes, particularly in resource-limited settings.

Keywords: Carcinoma, hepatocellular; Elasticity imaging techniques; Liver neoplasms/diagnostic imaging.

The sternum and the sternoclavicular joints can exhibit a wide range of anatomical variations and serve as sites for numerous diseases, many of which are diagnosed solely through imaging studies. Recognizing these variations and differentiating them from pathological conditions is essential for radiologists, because accurate identification helps prevent misdiagnoses and treatment delays. This study provides a comprehensive review of the sternal anatomy, addressing anatomical variations, as well as mechanical, inflammatory, and traumatic pathologies, discussing their radiographic characteristics across different imaging modalities. Thus, it provides an overview of the key radiological findings.

Keywords: Sternum; Manubrium; Xiphoid bone; X-Rays; Multidetector computed tomography; Magnetic resonance imaging.

This study involved a retrospective analysis of nine cases of neurocryptococcosis (eight from our institution and one from another institution) seen between May 2014 and May 2022, together with a systematic review of the literature indexed in the PubMed, Embase, and Lilacs databases. Clinical and radiological features of those cases were further refined via an additional comprehensive literature review. The following search string was employed: cryptococcosis AND central nervous system AND (magnetic resonance imaging OR X-ray computed tomography). The search was limited to articles published between July 1978 and May 2022. Two authors, working independently, searched for and selected studies that met the inclusion criteria, and another author reviewed conflicts in a blinded manner. We used Rayyan.ai software to organize the studies, and the review was structured in accordance with the 2020 Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. Understanding the prevalence of different patterns of neurocryptococcosis is crucial for improving diagnosis and supporting decision-making in clinical practice. Our review of the literature demonstrated that imaging examinations are a valuable resource for early diagnosis, as well as for assessment of the initial extent and pattern of the disease.

Keywords: Cryptococcosis; Central nervous system; Magnetic resonance imaging.

A typical approach for many cardiovascular surgical procedures is median sternotomy. Despite advances in surgical techniques and postoperative care, complications still occur in 0.5–5.0% of cases. Radiological assessment of the chest after sternotomy is a challenge, because normal findings resulting from surgical trauma can resemble complications. This pictorial essay aims to provide an overview of normal postoperative imaging findings and the spectrum of complications that can arise, including surgical material-related issues, hematomas, bone complications, and infections. Diagnosis and management require careful interpretation of imaging studies, considering the recovery timeline and clinical status of the patient. With the increasing number of cardiothoracic surgical procedures, this is essential knowledge for radiologists, allowing them to contribute to an accurate diagnosis and the appropriate management of patients.

Keywords: Sternotomy; Postoperative complications; Diagnostic imaging; Mediastinitis; Surgical wound infection.

Increasing tissue contrast for bone assessment on magnetic resonance imaging has been the aim of several recent studies, and various techniques have been proposed for that purpose, including ultrashort echo time sequences, zero echo time sequences, and gradient echo sequences in various acquisition forms. In this article, we discuss the fast field echo resembling a computed tomography using restricted echo-spacing (FRACTURE) sequence, which we have started to use routinely in our practice. The FRACTURE sequences are based on the acquisition of gradient echo sequences with different echo times and specific postprocessing. Gradient echo sequences are widely available on magnetic resonance imaging scanners, which is an advantage for the use of a FRACTURE sequence. However, being more susceptible to metal artifacts, a FRACTURE sequence is of limited utility in patients with metallic implants or medical devices. The aim of this article is to illustrate the use of FRACTURE sequences in various contexts, including osteoarticular infection, inflammatory arthropathy, bone tumors, fractures, and crystal deposition diseases.

Keywords: Magnetic resonance imaging; Multidetector computed tomography; Bone and bones; Joints.

For ultrasound-guided prostate biopsy, a transperineal approach is emerging as a superior alternative to the transrectal approach because the former is associated with a lower risk of infection. This pictorial essay aims to highlight the broader applications of transperineal ultrasound (i.e. , those beyond prostate biopsy). We demonstrate various diagnostic and therapeutic uses of transperineal ultrasound, including lymph node biopsies, abscess drainage, hydrogel spacer placement for radiotherapy, and penile biopsies. Details of the transperineal approach, including patient positioning and preparation, are described. In addition, the effectiveness and safety of the method are demonstrated. Our results underscore the versatility of transperineal ultrasound and its potential to enhance clinical practice, demonstrating its importance as a minimally invasive technique with significant clinical benefits in various medical contexts.

Keywords: Perineum/diagnostic imaging; Biopsy; Drainage; Radiotherapy; Hydrogels; Ultrasonography.

The anatomy of the sural nerve is highly variable, and the nerve can present injuries of various etiologies, including iatrogenic injury during surgery. Precise knowledge of the course and morphology of the sural nerve is valuable, and the ability to assess the nerve properly before surgery increases the postoperative success rate, as well as facilitating the execution of nerve conduction studies and biopsies. The purpose of this article is to describe and illustrate the anatomy of the sural nerve, as seen on ultrasonography, which is a practical and economical imaging method.

Keywords: Diagnosis; Sural nerve; Ultrasonography; Anatomy.

Infantile hemangioma (IH) is a common benign vascular neoplasm with a characteristic pattern of progression: at birth, it is not fully developed; in the first days or weeks of life, it grows; and its growth peaks at around one year of age, after which there is spontaneous regression. Although most IHs are superficial and therefore obvious on physical examination, they can also affect deeper planes or other organs, in which case they are best assessed with imaging examinations. Methods such as ultrasound and magnetic resonance imaging can help differentiate IHs from vascular malformations, other benign tumors, and malignant tumors. The aim of this pictorial essay is to demonstrate the various presentations of IHs through illustrative cases, with an emphasis on imaging findings.

Keywords: Hemangioma; Hemangioma, capillary; Infant; Ultrasonography; Magnetic resonance imaging.