OBJECTIVE: To evaluate dose-area product, skin entrance dose and doses from fluoroscopy and radiography in voiding cystourethrography studies of pediatric patients. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Procedures performed in 37 patients by four physicians of the institution were evaluated. Measurements were performed with an equipment including an ionization chamber directly coupled to the x-ray tube window and an electrometer (Diamentor) connected to a computer for data collection. RESULTS: Some procedures heterogeneity was observed and guidelines for good radiographic techniques were not followed. On average, 11 radiographies are performed for each study, with extended fluoroscopy time delivering a higher average final dose than those reported in the literature. CONCLUSION: The adoption of radiography with high kilovoltage technique and restricted utilization of fluoroscopy can result in a significant reduction of doses during this procedure, considering that the major contribution to the final dose comes from fluoroscopy.

Keywords: X-rays, Dosimetry, Cystourethrography, Fluoroscopy, Pediatric radiology

OBJECTIVE: The present study was aimed at developing a thermoluminescent dosimetric system capable of assessing the doses delivered to the rectum of patients submitted to high-dose-rate brachytherapy for uterine cervix cancer. MATERIALS AND METHODS: LiF:Mg,Ti,Na powder was the thermoluminescent material utilized for evaluating the rectal dose. The powder was divided into small portions (34 mg) which were accommodated in a capillary tube. This tube was placed into a rectal probe that was introduced into the patient's rectum. RESULTS: The doses delivered to the rectum of six patients submitted to high-dose-rate brachytherapy for uterine cervix cancer evaluated by means of thermoluminescent dosimeters presented a good agreement with the planned values based on two orthogonal (anteroposterior and lateral) radiographic images of the patients. CONCLUSION: The thermoluminescent dosimetric system developed in the present study is simple and easy to be utilized as compared to other rectal dosimetry methods. The system has shown to be effective in the evaluation of rectal doses in patients submitted to high-dose-rate brachytherapy for uterine cervix cancer.

Keywords: Rectum, Brachytherapy, HDR, Thermoluminescent dosimetry, Uterine cervix cancer

OBJECTIVE: To calculate spectra of cobalt-60 beam at water depth and correction factors for absorbed dose measurements obtained with lithium fluoride thermoluminescent dosimeters using Monte Carlo simulation. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The simulations of secondary spectra of clinical cobalt-60 sources were performed with the PENELOPE Monte Carlo code at different water depths. Experimental measurements of deep doses were obtained with thermoluminescent dosimeters and ionization chamber under reference conditions for radiotherapy. Correction factors for the thermoluminescent dosimeters detectors were obtained through the ratio between the relative energy absorption for the low energy spectrum and the total spectrum. RESULTS: Deep spectral analysis has demonstrated the presence of secondary low-energy spectra responsible for a significant portion of the dose deposition. Discrepancies of 3.2% were observed among the doses measured with ionization chamber and thermoluminescent dosimeters. The adoption of correction factors has allowed a reduction in the discrepancy among absorbed doses to a maximum of 0.3%. CONCLUSION: Simulated spectra allow the calculation of correction factors for reading of thermoluminescent dosimeters utilized in the measurement of deep doses, contributing for the reduction of uncertainties associated with quality control of clinical beams in radiotherapy.

Keywords: Monte Carlo simulation, Radiotherapy, Spectrometry, Quality control, Thermoluminescent dosimetry, TLD

OBJECTIVE: The present study evaluates the dose distribution received by physicians involved in hemodynamic procedures of coronary angiography and coronariography. The influence of some factors such as pulsed or continuous fluoroscopy mode and vein and/or artery access site was investigated. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Measurements have been performed with LiF:Mg,Ti thermoluminescent dosimeters placed on seven different sites of the practitioners' bodies: hands, left knee, neck, forehead and chest, under and over the lead apron. Radiation doses for each procedure were evaluated in physicians who had performed 60 coronariography and 30 angioplasty procedures. The thermoluminescent dosimeters were calibrated in the operational quantity personal dose equivalent, Hp(d), at depths of 0.07, 3 and 10 mm. RESULTS: The results of the present study demonstrate the significant role played by thyroid protectors and lead aprons for reducing radiation doses received by practitioners. Occupational doses in continuous mode fluoroscopy through brachial access were higher than with pulsed mode fluoroscopy through femoral access. CONCLUSION: The present study has demonstrated the necessity of implementing additional protective measures as well as a mechanism of training in radiation protection for physicians involved in interventional cardiological procedures.

Keywords: Interventional radiology, Fluoroscopy, Hemodynamic procedures, Radiation protection, Thermoluminescent dosimetry

OBJECTIVE: The present study was aimed at: a) evaluating radiographic procedures and estimating entrance surface air kerma in preterm neonates submitted to chest and abdominal radiography at the unit of neonatology in a public hospital of Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil; b) estimating the dose to organs and respective risks for cancer as a result from radiation exposure. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Records of patients admitted to the unit of neonatology of this hospital in the period between May and September 2004 were reviewed. Anthropometric data, admission/discharge dates and radiographic studies performed were recorded for each of the patients. The calculation of the entrance surface air kerma was based on the x-ray tube output and irradiation parameters adopted for examinations. Dose to organs was calculated with the aid of the software PCXMC, and the lifetime risk for cancer, with the software IREP. RESULTS: Mean entrance surface air kerma per examination was below the diagnostic reference levels recommended by the European Community. In the most severely irradiated patients, liver, breast and stomach were the organs at highest risk for cancer, with maximum excess relative risk of respectively 3.4%, 2.3%, and 1.7%. CONCLUSION: The present study demonstrated the need for optimization of radiographic procedures in order to reduce the risks for neonates that, in spite of being considered to be low as compared with the benefits, should be reduced to values as low as reasonably achievable.

Keywords: Patient dosimetry, Radiological protection, Pediatric radiology, Cancer risk

OBJECTIVE: The present study was aimed at evaluating the frequency of radiographic assessment of paranasal sinuses in pediatric patients in hospitals of Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil. Additionally, aspects regarding radiation protection conditions and radiographic parameters were evaluated, and entrance air kerma and organ doses were estimated. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Patients' data and parameters of radiographic technique employed in the assessment of children in the age range between 1 and 16 years were collected in five examination rooms of four hospitals in Belo Horizonte, also taking into consideration the radiation protection aspects. Entrance air kerma calculation was based on the x-ray tubes output, and organ doses were estimated with the PCXMC software. RESULTS: Mean entrance air kerma values found in the five rooms were, respectively, 1398 µGy, 829 µGy, 877 µGy, 1168 µGy and 3886 µGy for patients with ages between 1 and 5 years. CONCLUSION: Most frequently, mento-naso and fronto-naso views are requested in conjunction in the majority of hospitals, which increases the radiation dose to the patients. It may be concluded that the risks for patients can be reduced by means of the utilization of an appropriate x-ray field, non-utilization of antiscattering grids, selection of high voltages and lower exposure times.

Keywords: Pediatric radiology, Patient dose, Organ dose

Energy and angular dependences of different thermoluminescent materials were studied with the objective to verify which type of detector would be the most appropriate for beta monitoring of workers. Three types of CaSO4:Dy + teflon pellets were studied. The energy dependence was evaluated using standard beta radiation sources (147Pm, 204Tl and 90Sr+90Y). For the angular dependence study, the pellets were exposed to beta radiation of the 90Sr+90Y source, varying the incidence angle between 0° and 90°. In relation to the studied characteristics, the CaSO4:Dy + 10% C dosimeters were the most adequate for use in beta monitoring of workers.

Keywords: Thermoluminescent dosimetry, Beta radiation, Angular dependence, Energetic dependence

OBJECTIVE: To present the solidly established traceability structure for ionometric standards and for thermoluminescent dosimetry system that ensures reliability of the Dosimetry Quality Assurance Program and is aimed to certify the highest level of accuracy of the measurements. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Thermoluminescent powder dosimeters (DTL 937) placed into plastic capsules and packed in specific kits for each intended application were mailed to the participant centers. RESULTS: The results of the intercomparisons performed between "Laboratório de Ciências Radiológicas da Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro" and EQUAL-ESTRO for the beam of 60Co gamma rays, expressed for (1sigma), and the results of the dose absorbed measurements obtained with the chambers of the Program EQUAL and the chambers of the Dosimetry Quality Assurance Program were lower than 0.5%. CONCLUSION: Based on these results we concluded that the Dosimetry Quality Assurance Program reached the desired level of reliability to allow its implementation.

Keywords: Quality assurance, Radiotherapy, Dosimetric intercomparison, Thermoluminescent dosimetry, TLD

The dose area product was evaluated and the entrance skin dose was subsequently estimated by means of suitable calculations for pediatric examinations. Results showed values around 100% above the reference levels (0.070 mGy). The technical parameters of the X-ray tubes were periodically checked since a routine quality assurance program is implemented in the hospital. Results showed a good performance of the equipment complying with recommended limits according to Brazilian legislation. Therefore, the high doses can be attributed to the low kV techniques and the lack of appropriate training of the radiographers to perform pediatric examinations. Measurements of scattered radiation were performed in the gonads with the use of thermoluminescent dosimeters which proved to be inadequate for these measurements. Therefore an ionization chamber was used instead and the values obtained showed that the doses were far below the values that can cause permanent or transient sterility.

Keywords: Radiation doses, Pediatric radiology, Image quality

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the precision of the absorbed radiation doses in bone marrow transplant therapy during whole body irradiation. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Two-hundred CaSO4:Dy + teflon tablets were calibrated in air and in "phantom". These tablets were randomly selected and divided in groups of five in the patients' body. The dosimetric readings were obtained using a Harshaw 4000A reader. Nine patients had their entire bodies irradiated in parallel and opposite laterals in a cobalt-60 Alcion II model, with a dose rate of 0.80 Gy/min at 80.5 cm, {(10 × 10) cm² field}. The dosimetry of this unit was performed using a Victoreen 500 dosimeter. For the determination of the mean dose at each point evaluated, the individual values of the tablets calibrated in air or "phantom" were used, resulting in a build up of 2 mm to superficialize the dose at a distance of 300 cm. RESULTS: In 70% of the patients a variation of less than 5% in the dose was obtained. In 30% of the patients this variation was less than 10%, when values obtained were compared to the values calculated at each point. A mean absorption of 14% was seen in the head, and an increase of 2% of the administered dose was seen in the lungs. In patients with latero-lateral distance greater than 35 cm the variation between the calculated doses and the measured doses reached 30% of the desired dose, without the use of compensation filters. CONCLUSION: The measured values of the absorbed doses at the various anatomic points compared to the desired doses (theoretic) presented a tolerance of ± 10%, considering the existent anatomical differences and when using the individual calibration factors of the tablets.

Keywords: Whole body irradiation, Dosimetry, Thermoluminescent dosimeters, Doses, Bone marrow transplantation

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this work is to discuss the effects of the main parameters that influence image quality and the entrance skin dose. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The pediatric chest radiographs of three different Institutions were evaluated. Tests on all x-ray equipment were performed. The skin entrance dose was assessed using thermoluminescent dosimeters. RESULTS: Only one of all x-ray equipments tested was in good operation condition. The average skin entrance dose was: (0.222 ± 0.088) mGy for children under 1 year, (0.28 ± 0.11) mGy for 1.1 to 4 years, (0.26 ± 0.13) mGy for 4.1 to 6 years, (0.23 ± 0.13) mGy for 6.1 to 10 years and (0.26 ± 0.25) mGy for older than 10 years. CONCLUSION: The results showed that the average skin entrance doses are higher than the European Community Commission reference levels and other values reported in the literature. We recommend the implantation of quality assurance programs to reduce skin entrance doses and for obtaining good quality images.

Keywords: Pediatric radiology, Skin dose, Reference levels

OBJECTIVE: Aiming at contributing to the knowledge on doses in computed tomography (CT), this study has the objective of determining dosimetric quantities associated with pediatric abdominal CT scans, comparing the data with diagnostic reference levels (DRL). MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study was developed with a Toshiba Asteion single-slice CT scanner and a GE BrightSpeed multi-slice CT unit in two hospitals. Measurements were performed with a pencil-type ionization chamber and a 16 cm-diameter polymethylmethacrylate trunk phantom. RESULTS: No significant difference was observed in the values for weighted air kerma index (C_W), but the differences were relevant in values for volumetric air kerma index (C_VOL), air kerma-length product (P_KL,CT) and effective dose. CONCLUSION: Only the C_W values were lower than the DRL, suggesting that dose optimization might not be necessary. However, P_KL,CT and effective dose values stressed that there still is room for reducing pediatric radiation doses. The present study emphasizes the importance of determining all dosimetric quantities associated with CT scans.

Keywords: Pediatric computed tomography scans; Dosimetric quantities; Weighted dose index; Volumetric air kerma index; Air kermalength product.

OBJECTIVE: This article presents a way to obtain estimates of dose in patients submitted to radiotherapy with basis on the analysis of regions of interest on nuclear medicine images. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A software called DoRadIo (Dosimetria das Radiações Ionizantes [Ionizing Radiation Dosimetry]) was developed to receive information about source organs and target organs, generating graphical and numerical results. The nuclear medicine images utilized in the present study were obtained from catalogs provided by medical physicists. The simulations were performed with computational exposure models consisting of voxel phantoms coupled with the Monte Carlo EGSnrc code. The software was developed with the Microsoft Visual Studio 2010 Service Pack and the project template Windows Presentation Foundation for C# programming language. RESULTS: With the mentioned tools, the authors obtained the file for optimization of Monte Carlo simulations using the EGSnrc; organization and compaction of dosimetry results with all radioactive sources; selection of regions of interest; evaluation of grayscale intensity in regions of interest; the file of weighted sources; and, finally, all the charts and numerical results. CONCLUSION: The user interface may be adapted for use in clinical nuclear medicine as a computer-aided tool to estimate the administered activity.

Keywords: Nuclear medicine; Biokinetic distribution; Dosimetric evaluations; Administered activity.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the level of ambient radiation in a PET/CT center. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Previously selected and calibrated TLD-100H thermoluminescent dosimeters were utilized to measure room radiation levels. During 32 days, the detectors were placed in several strategically selected points inside the PET/CT center and in adjacent buildings. After the exposure period the dosimeters were collected and processed to determine the radiation level. RESULTS: In none of the points selected for measurements the values exceeded the radiation dose threshold for controlled area (5 mSv/year) or free area (0.5 mSv/year) as recommended by the Brazilian regulations. CONCLUSION: In the present study the authors demonstrated that the whole shielding system is appropriate and, consequently, the workers are exposed to doses below the threshold established by Brazilian standards, provided the radiation protection standards are followed.

Keywords: Dosimetry; Thermoluminescence dosimetry; PET/CT.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the entrance surface air kerma (K_a,e) and air kerma in the region of radiosensitive organs in radiographs of pediatric paranasal sinuses. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Patient data and irradiation parameters were collected in examinations of the paranasal sinuses in children from 0 to 15 years of age at two children's hospitals in the city of Recife, PE, Brazil. We estimated the K_a,e using the X-ray tube outputs and selected parameters. To estimate the air kerma values in the regions of the eyes and thyroid, we used thermoluminescent dosimeters. RESULTS: The K_a,e values ranged from 0.065 to 1.446 mGy in cavum radiographs, from 0.104 to 7.298 mGy in Caldwell views, and from 0.113 to 7.824 mGy in Waters views. Air kerma values in the region of the eyes ranged from 0.001 to 0.968 mGy in cavum radiographs and from 0.011 to 0.422 mGy in Caldwell and Waters views . In the thyroid region, air kerma values ranged from 0.005 to 0.932 mGy in cavum radiographs and from 0.002 to 0.972 mGy in Caldwell and Waters views. CONCLUSION: The radiation levels used at the institutions under study were higher than those recommended in international protocols. We recommend that interventions be initiated in order to reduce patient exposure to radiation and therefore the risks associated with radiological examination of the paranasal sinuses.

Keywords: Radiometry; Radiography; Paranasal sinuses; Pediatrics; Thermoluminescent dosimetry..